Il grande mito

1. Kennedy. J.F., “4 April 1962, Special Message on Transportation”, John F. Kennedy presidential library and museum, consultato il 9 maggio 2020, https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/JFKPOF/050/JFKPOF-050-015

2. Williams D.K., The Election of the Evangelical, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence 2020

3. Perlstein R., The Invisible Bridge: The Fall of Nixon and the Rise of Reagan, Simon & Schuster, New York 2014, xiv

4. Investopedia, “Stagflation”, 2 agosto 2021, https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/stagflation.asp. Sul rallentamento della crescita economica negli anni Settanta e sul modo in cui questo sia stato usato per giustificare la deregulation, si veda Madrick J., The Case for Big Government, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2008, 88

5. Weisman D.L., “Fred Kahn at 100: A Brief Look Back at the Man and the Principles He Championed”, Electricity Journal, 30, n° 7, agosto-settembre 2017, 67-71

6. Popp Berman E., Thinking Like an Economist: How Efficiency Replaced Equality in U.S. Public Policy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2022

7. Hirsh R.F., Technology and Transformation in the American Electric Utility Industry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2003, 46-51, definisce “crescere e costruire” questa strategia. Si veda anche McCraw T.K., Prophets of Regulation: Charles Francis Adams, Louis D. Brandeis, James M. Landis, Alfred E. Kahn, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984

8. McCraw T.K., Prophets of Regulation, cit., 240

9. Ibidem, 225

10. Stein J., Pivotal Decade: How the United States Traded Factories for Finance in the Seventies, edizione Kindle, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2010, cap. 2

11. Esiste una miriade di argomentazioni sul gold standard, che va ben oltre la portata della nostra esperienza.

12. Jacobs M., Panic at the Pump: The Energy Crisis and the Transformation of American Politics in the 1970s, Hill and Wang, New York 2017, 155

13. Williams D.K., The Election of the Evangelical, cit., 199-238

14. Carter J., “Our Nation’s Past and Future”, discorso al Madison Square Garden, New York City, 15 luglio 1976, https://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/assets/documents/speeches/acceptance_speech.pdf

15. Jacobs M., Panic at the Pump, cit., 4, 74-76

16. Friedman M., “Gas Crisis: Weather or Washington?”, Newsweek, 28 febbraio 1977

17. Oreskes N., Conway E., Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming, ed. in brossura, Bloomsbury, New York 2011 (ed. italiana Mercanti di dubbi, Edizioni Ambiente, Milano 2025)

18. Carter J., “Address to the Nation on Energy”, Washington, D.C., 18 aprile 1977, https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/april-18-1977-address-nation-energy

19. Jacobs M., Panic at the Pump, cit., 170-86; si veda anche Eizenstat S.E., President Carter: The White House Years, St. Martin’s, New York 2018, 170-203

20. Biven W.C., Jimmy Carter’s Economy: Policy in an Age of Limits, nuova edizione, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 2002, 177; Jacobs M., Panic at the Pump, cit., 198; Eizenstat S.E., President Carter, cit., 237

21. Jacobs M., Panic at the Pump, cit., 189

22. Per quanto riguarda gli studi sulla deregulation dei trasporti nelle amministrazioni Nixon e Ford, si veda Stoller M., Goliath: The 100-Year War Between Monopoly Power and Democracy, Simon & Schuster, New York 2019, cap. 12

23. Vietor R.H.K., Contrived Competition: Regulation and Deregulation in America, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994, 51

24. U.S. Senate, Committee of the Judiciary, “Oversight of Civil Aeronautics Board Practices and Procedures”, 94° Congresso, 1° sessione, vol. 1, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 6 febbraio 1975, 1

25. Ibidem, 2

26. Ibidem, 3

27. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on House Administration, The Presidential Campaign, 1976: The Debates, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1978, 235-236, https://books.google.com/books?id=q_3IaSPCA-UC

28. Carter J., “Airline Industry Regulation Message to the Congress”, 4 marzo 1977, American Presidency Project (a cura di), University of California Santa Barbara, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/airline-industry-regulation-message-the-congress

29. Eizenstat S.E., President Carter, cit., 368. Sui gruppi pro-consumatori che promuovono una retorica antigovernativa dal punto di vista dei diritti dei consumatori, si veda Sabin P., Public Citizens: The Attack on Big Government and the Remaking of American Liberalism, W.W. Norton, New York 2021

30. Petzinger T. Jr, Hard Landing: The Epic Contest for Power and Profits that Plunged the Airlines into Chaos, Currency Press, Redfern, New South Wales, Australia, 1996, 82

31. “Regulatory Reform in Air Transportation: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Aviation of the Committee on Commerce”, Senato degli Stati Uniti, 94° Congresso, 2° sessione, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1976, citato da 510. Si veda anche Vietor R.H.K., Contrived Competition, cit., 54

32. “U.S. Airline Traffic & Capacity”, Airlines.org, 8 maggio 2020, https://www.airlines.org/dataset/annual-results-u-s-airlines-2/

33. McCraw T.K., Prophets of Regulation, cit., 287

34. Stima in Button K., “A Book, the Application, and the Outcomes: How right Was Alfred Kahn in The Economics of Regulation about the Effects of the Deregulation of the U.S. Domestic Airline Market?”, History of Political Economy, 47, n° 1, 1° marzo 2015, 1-39

35. Kahn A., citato in McCraw T.K., Prophets of Regulation, cit., 278

36. Card D., Saunders L., “Deregulation and Labor Earnings in the Airline Industry”, in Regulatory Reform and Labor Markets, Peoples J. (a cura di), Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht 1998, 183-247

37. Goetz A.R., Vowles T.M., “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: 30 Years of U.S. Airline Deregulation”, Journal of Transport Geography, 17, 1° luglio 2009, 251-263. La Pension benefit guaranty corporation (Pbgc) è stata creata nel 1974 per assorbire le responsabilità pensionistiche delle imprese manifatturiere fallite, ed era finanziata in parte da ciò che rimaneva degli attivi pensionistici di un’impresa e da una tassa versata dalle imprese assicurate per ogni lavoratore.

38. Maynard M., “United Air Wins Right to Default on Its Employee Pension Plans”, New York Times, 11 maggio 2005

39. U.S. v. AMR Corp., 335 F.3d 1109, 10th Cir. 2003. La causa è stata intentata dal Dipartimento di Giustizia e la Vanguard Airlines ha presentato un amicus brief.

40. Kahn A.E., “American and Predatory Pricing”, Wall Street Journal, 16 giugno 1999, A27

41. Easterbrook aveva frequentato la University of Chicago law school e vi aveva insegnato prima di essere nominato al Settimo circuito. Il giudice Easterbrook è tuttora in carica ed è autore di molte sentenze degne di nota, tra le quali una del 2020 che ha confermato le restrizioni al voto in Wisconsin. Ribaltando il parere di un tribunale di grado inferiore, che aveva giudicato incostituzionali le restrizioni, Easterbrook ha ritenuto che fossero accettabili perché avevano un chiaro intento politico, ovvero quello di escludere i Democratici, e non una base razziale. Richmond T., “Appeals Court Reinstates Some Voting Restrictions in Wisconsin”, WUWM 89.7 FM, NPR di Milwaukee, 30 giugno 2020, https://www.wuwm.com/politics-government/2020-06-30/appeals-court-reinstates-some-voting-restrictions-in-wisconsin

42. Si veda la nota 9 del parere in U.S. v AMR Corp., 2003 (cit. nota 39)

43. Tutto ciò era problematico anche per un altro aspetto: si argomentava che gli attuali prezzi elevati erano la conseguenza dei prezzi precedenti, eccessivamente bassi, che avevano allontanato l’aspirante concorrente. Inquadrare le prove solo in termini di prezzi al momento elevati era quindi fuorviante.

44. Le citazioni (omesse dal testo principale per brevità) sono: Easterbrook F.H., “Predatory Strategies and Counterstrategies”, University of Chicago Law Review, 48, 1981, 263, 264; Pierce R.J. Jr, “Is Post-Chicago Ready for the Courtroom? A Response to Professor Brennan”, George Washington Law Review, 69, 2001, 1103, 1106; la decisione si trova in Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 589, 1986); Brooke Group Ltd. v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp., 509 U.S. 209, 226 (1993)

45. McDowell E., “Five Questions for Alfred E. Kahn; He Freed the Airlines. But What to Do Now?”, New York Times, 16 maggio 1999, https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/16/business/five-questions-for-alfred-e-kahn-he-freed-the-airlines-but-what-to-do-now.html

46. Ibidem.

47. Bork R.H., “This Antitrust Theory Won’t Fly”, Wall Street Journal, 17 maggio 1999, https://www.aei.org/articles/this-antitrust-theory-wont-fly/

48. Alfred E. Kahn, “American and Predatory Pricing”, Wall Street Journal, 16 giugno 1999, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB929482757852350778

49. Rubin J.L., “The Premature Post-Chicagoan: Alfred E. Kahn”, Antitrust, 25, n° 3, 2011. Per un esempio recente di quanto sia alta la soglia per dimostrare il danno, si veda Evans D.S., Schmalensee R., “The Role Of Market Definition in Assessing Anticompetitive Harm in Ohio v. American Express”, Competition Policy International, 25 giugno 2019, https://www.competitionpolicyinternational.com/the-role-of-market-definition-in-assessing-anticompetitive-harm-in-ohio-v-american-express/

50. Hamilton S., Trucking Country: The Road to America’s Wal-Mart Economy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2008, capp. 3 e 4

51. White R., Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America, W.W. Norton, New York 2011

52. Hamilton S., Trucking Country, cit., 8

53. Ibidem, 19-20

54. Ibidem, 18-19

55. Ibidem, 212

56. Citato da Ibidem, 215

57. Carter J., “Trucking Industry Deregulation Message to the Congress Transmitting Proposed Legislation”, 21 giugno 1979, per gentile concessione dell’American presidency project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/trucking-industry-deregulation-message-the-congress-transmitting-proposed-legislation

58. U.S. House of Representatives, “Examining Current Conditions in the Trucking Industry and the Possible Necessity for Change in the Manner and Scope of its Regulations, part 1”, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Surface Transportation of the Committee on Public Works and Transportation, 96° Congresso, 1^a sessione, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1980, 393

59. Carter J., citato in Robyn D., Braking the Special Interests: Trucking Deregulation and the Politics of Policy Reform, 1^a edizione, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1987, 56

60. Carter J., “Trucking Industry Deregulation Message”, cit.

61. Hahn R.W., Hird J.A., “The Costs and Benefits of Regulation: Review and Synthesis”, Yale Journal on Regulation, 8, 1991, 233-278

62. Winston C., “The Success of the Staggers Rail Act of 1980”, AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies, 15 ottobre 2005, https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-success-of-the-staggers-rail-act-of-1980/

63. MacDonald J.M., Cavalluzzo L.C., “Railroad Deregulation: Pricing Reforms, Shipper Responses to, and the Effects on Labor”, Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 50, n° 1, ottobre 1996, 80-91

64. Hamilton S., Trucking Country, cit., 229-230

65. Ibidem, 229-230

66. Belzer M.H., Sweatshops on Wheels: Winners and Losers in Trucking Deregulation, 1^a edizione, Oxford University Press, New York 2000, 65-75

67. U.S. House of Representatives, “Current Conditions in the Trucking Industry”, cit., 397

68. Florida R.L., “The Political Economy of Financial Deregulation and the Reorganization of Housing Finance in the United States”, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 10, n° 2, giugno 1986, 207-231

69. Krippner G.R., “The Social Politics of U.S. Financial Deregulation”, in Capitalizing on Crisis: The Political Origins of the Rise of Finance, Krippner G.R. (a cura di), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011, 80

70. Florida R.L., “The Political Economy of Financial Deregulation”, cit.

71. Carter J., “Financial Reform Legislation Message to the Congress Proposing the Legislation”, 22 maggio 1979, per gentile concessione dell’American presidency project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/financial-reform-legislation-message-the-congress-proposing-the-legislation

72. Day K., Broken Bargain: Bankers, Bailouts, and the Struggle to Tame Wall Street, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2019, 139

73. McNeill C.R., Rechter D.M., “Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980”, Federal Reserve Bulletin, 66, n° 80, giugno 1980, 444-453

74. Stein J., Pivotal Decade, cit., 122

75. Ibidem, cap. 8

76. Office of Secretary of Treasury Office of Tax Analysis, Report to Congress on the Capital Gains Tax Reducations of 1978, settembre 1985, https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/131/Report-Capial-Gains-Reduction-1978.pdf

77. Ibidem, 202

78. Ibidem, 204

79. Biven W.C., Jimmy Carter’s Economy, cit., 237

80. Dudley S.E., “Alfred Kahn, 1917-2010: Remembering the Father of Airline Deregulation”, Regulation, 34, n° 1, primavera 2011, 5

81. Questa relazione viene generalmente chiamata “curva di Phillips”, dal nome dell’economista neozelandese William Phillips, ma si veda Fisher I., “A Statistical Relation between Unemployment and Price Changes”, International Labour Review, 13, 6, 1926, 785-792

82. McChesney Martin W., citato in Stein D., “Containing Keynesianism in an Age of Civil Rights: Jim Crow Monetary Policy and the Struggle for Guaranteed Jobs, 1956-1979”, in Beyond the New Deal Order: U.S. Politics from the Great Depression to the Great Recession, Gerstle G., Lichtenstein N., O’Connor A. (a cura di), University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2019, 127

83. Ibidem, 128

84. Citato in Krugman P., “Who Was Milton Friedman?”, New York Review of Books, 15 febbraio 2007

85. Biven W.C., Jimmy Carter’s Economy, cit., 194

86. Nel 1960, nessun economista mainstream avrebbe accettato l’affermazione di Friedman; nel 1980 era invece riconosciuta, ma negli anni Dieci del Duemila si sono susseguiti molti anni di alta occupazione e assenza di inflazione, e perciò è crollata l’idea che esista una relazione semplice tra inflazione e occupazione. Si veda Engemann K., “What’s the Phillips Curve & Why Has It Flattened?”, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 14 gennaio 2020, https://www.stlouisfed.org/open-vault/2020/january/what-is-phillips-curve-why-flattened

87. Eizenstat S.E., President Carter, cit., 341; Greider W., Secrets of the Temple: How the Federal Reserve Runs the Country, Simon & Schuster, New York 1989, 77

88. Silber W.L., Volcker: The Triumph of Persistence, 1^a edizione, Bloomsbury, New York 2012, 174

89. Dati della Federal Reserve, database FRED, https://fred.stlouisfed.org/

90. Klein N., The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, Picador, New York 2007, 199-210

91. Keynes J. M., A Tract on Monetary Reform, Macmillan, London 1923, 80

92. Kahn A.E., “Liberals Must Face the Facts”, Challenge, 24, n° 5, 1° novembre 1981, 25-32